The Ata-Puerca Mountains is an ancient landscape Region of Spain, formed by the dissolution of Soluble Rocks such as Lime-Stone, Dolomite, and Gypsum. It is characterized by underground drainage system with Sink-holes, Dolines, and Caves. The Region belongs to the Province of Burgos, Castille and Leon and near Ata-Puerca and Ibeas de Juarros.
It contains several Caves, where fossils and stone tools of the earliest known Humans in Western Europe have been found. They have been dated as being up to 1.2 million and 600 thousand years old, respectively. The Caves are known collectively as the "Archaeological Site of Ata-Puerca."
Larger Brain cases with a cranial volume of 1100-1400 cm3 overlapping the 1350 cm3 average of modern humans, were found in the caves belonging to that specific Region.
Numerous fossil bones indicate that some of them were giants (2.13m/7ft tall). Recent findings in a pit in Ata-Puerca suggest they were the 1st species of humans who bury its dead. They acquired a pre-linguistic system of communication. No form of art have been uncovered, although red ochre (mineral used to mix red pigment useful as a paint) were found in other Caves of the Region.
The morphology of the outer and middle ear suggest they had an extraordinary auditory sensitivity. They were able to differentiate between many different sounds.
In antiquity, the Ebro was used as the dividing line between Roman (North) and Carthaginian (South) expansions after the 1st Punic War (264-241 BC). When Rome, fearful of Hannibal's growing influence in The Iberian Peninsula, made the City of Saguntum (South of Ebro) a Protectorate of Rome. Hannibal viewed it as a Treaty Violation and as an aggressive action by Rome and used the event as the catalyst to the Second Punic War.
The Ebro is the most important River in Spain in terms of length, 928 km (577mi). The flow decreased notably by about 29 per cent during the 20th century due to the construction of Dams, low rain fall, increasing demands for irrigation due to high sunshine and strong and dry winds, and the evaporation from reservoirs in the river basin. Dams and hydraulic canalization altered the dynamic of the River forever. This situation had a direct impact on the deltaic system at the mouth of the river because its hydrological dynamics are mainly controlled by the River discharge. The decrease in River discharge has meant introduction of the Salt Wedge. Fresh water floats on top of the sea-water in a layer that gradually thins as it moves Seaward. The denser Sea Water moves landward along the bottom of the estuary. As a velocity difference develops between the two layers, shear forces generate internal waves at the interface, mixing the Sea-Water upward with the Fresh-Water. The sediment load was reduced by more than 99 per cent during the last century. The drastic reduction in sediment transport implies a sediment deficit in the Delta, which is causing the erosion of the Coast-Line and lack of sediment replenish. Due to this changes almost entire forested area were cleared for crops or for pulp-wood forest plantation. Numerous plant and animal species have disappeared.
The traditional local Administrative Division (Comarca) named La Bureva is located in the NorthEast of the Province of Burgos in the autonomous community of Castilla and Leon.
La Bureba Pass connects the Ebro River Valley leading to the Mediterranean Sea and the duero Valley leading to that River's outlet at the Atlantic Ocean. This conjunction results in a transition area between two Biomes that is a gradual blending of two communities rich in species derived from both ecosystems. The Pass was part of a Roman Cause-Way of the pilgrimage route known as Pilgrim Ways (Camino Frances) to the shrine of the Apostle James the Great in the catedral of Santiago de Compostela in Galicia in North-Western Spain, where tradition said that the remains of the Apostle are buried in there. Many take up this route as a form of Spiritual Path or retreat for their spiritual growth.
The location of the Archaeological Site of Ata-Puerca between 2 major Water-Sheds and its importance Mountain Pass explain the intensity and continuity of human habitation found there.
The Sites in this Region were found during the construction of Railway cuts through Grand Dolina, Galery, and Elephant, and the cut through the Cave of the "Bone Hill"(Sima de los Huesos).
Because of its importance, in 2000, the Archaeological Site of Ata-Puerca was added to the Unesco list of World Heritage Sites.
The World's largest Landscape made of Soluble Rocks is Australia's Nul-Arbor Plain. Slovenia has the World's highest risk of Sink-Holes, while the Western High-Land Rim in the Eastern United States is at the second-highest risk of Soluble Rocks Sink-Holes.
Wednesday, March 2, 2016
WHY ASTEROIDS IMPACT THE EARTH?
For millennia people have wondered about the unpredictable behaviour of Comets, Meteors and Asteroids in the Sky. As far as we know, the German Mathematician and Geographer Peter Apian (Petrus Apianus) was the 1st to postulate, in 1540, that a Cometary Tail always point away from the Sun. In 1619 Kepler suggested that this is because the light of the Sun exerts a Repulsive Force on the particles of the Cometary Tail. Keppler was the first to speculate on this "light pressure."
The depression named Nord-Linger Ries is a large circular depression in Western Bavaria, Germany, located North of the Danube in the now District of Donau-Ries.
The depression is interpreted as a major Meteor Impact Crater formed about 14 million years ago. The original crater rim had an estimated diameter of 24 km (15mi). The present floor of the depression is about 100 to 150m (330 to 490ft) below the eroded remains of the rim. The key evidence was the presence of Coesite, which, in none metamorphosed rocks, can only be formed by the shock pressures associated with meteorite impact.
Another impact crater, the much smaller (3.8km diameter) crater, is located about 42km(26mi) West-Southwest from the centre of Ries. The two craters are believed to have formed nearly simultaneously by the impact of a binary asteroid.
A binary asteroid is a system of two asteroids orbiting their common center of mass or the point around which they both orbit. Recent work suggests that most of them have a significant macro-porosity (a "rubble-pile" interior), and may have formed by disruption of a parent body after an oblique impact or fission.
Recent computer modelling of the Impact Event indicated that the impactors had diameters of about 1.5km (4900ft) (Larger One) and 150m (490ft) (Smaller One). They had a pre-impact separation of some tens of kilometers, and impacted the targeting area at an angle around 30 to 50 degrees from the surface in a West-SouthWest to East-NorthEast direction. The impact velocity is thought to have been about 20km/s (45000mph). The resulting explosion had he power of 1.8 million Hiroshima Bombs, an energy of roughly 2.4x10(x21) Joules.
Ivan Osipo-Vich Yarkov-Sky (24 May 1844-22 January 1902) was a Polish civil engineer working in Russia. By day, he was employed by the Alexand-Rovsk Railway company Moscow-Brest. He was obscure in his own time. In his spare time, he went deeply into the Physical Sciences and searched for a "Grand Theory" of the Physical World. In1888 he described a subtle Thermal Effect that he believed would act on planets and smaller objects orbiting the Sun. Writing in a pamphlet around the year 1900, he noted that the Diurnal Heating of a Rotating Object in Space would cause it to experience a Force that, while tiny, could lead to large long-term effects in the Orbits of Small Bodies, especially meteoroids and asteroids. This effect fell into oblivion. In 1950, longer after his death, his work on the Effects of Thermal Radiation on small objects in the Solar System (Asteroids) was re-discovered and now is so-called Yarkov-Sky Effect in Planetary Astronomy.
The effect is a consequence of the Fact that change in the temperature of an object warmed by radiation (and therefore the intensity of Thermal Radiation from the Object) lags behind changes in the incoming radiation. The surface of the object takes time to become warm when first illuminated; and takes time to cool down when illumination stops.
The Diurnal Effect on a rotating body illuminated by the Sun (e.g. an asteroid or the Earth) is that the surface is warmed by Solar Radiation during the day, and cools at night. Due to the Thermal Properties of the Surface, there is a lag between the absorption of Radiation from the sun, and the Emission of that same Radiation as Heat, so the warmest point on a rotating body occurs around 2 PM site on the surface, or slightly at Noon. This results in a difference between the directions of Absorption and Re-emission of Radiation, which yield a Net Force along the Direction of Motion of the Orbit. If the Object is a pro-grade rotator, the Force is in the direction of motion of the orbit, and causes the Semi-Major Axis of the Orbit to increase steadily; the Object spirals away from the Sun. A retro-grade rotator spirals inward. The Diurnal Effect is the component for Bodies with diameter greater than about 100 m.
The Seasonal Effect is the easiest to understand for the case of a non-rotating orbiting the Sun, for which Each Year consists of exactly One Day. As it travels around its orbit, the "Dusk" Hemisphere which has been heated over a long preceding time period is invariable in the direction of Orbital Motion. The excess of Thermal Radiation in this direction causes a Breaking Force which always causes Spiraling Inward toward the Sun.
In practice, for Rotating Bodies, the Seasonal Effect increases along with the Axial Tilt. It dominates only if the Diurnal Effect is small enough. This may occur because of very rapid Rotation (no time to cool off on the Night Side, hence an almost uniform longitudinal temperature distribution), small size (the whole body is heated throughout) or an Axial Tilt close to 90 degrees.
The Seasonal Effect is more important for smaller Asteroid Fragments (from a few metres up to about 100m), provided their surfaces are not covered by an insulating layer of loose, heterogeneous superficial material, and they do not have exceedingly slow Rotations. Additionally, on very long time-scales over which the Spin Axis of the Body may be repeatedly changed due to collisions (and hence also the direction of the Diurnal Effect changes), the Seasonal Effect will also tend to dominate.
In general, the effect is size dependent, and will affect the semi-major Axis of smaller asteroids, while leaving large asteroids practically unaffected.
The depression named Nord-Linger Ries is a large circular depression in Western Bavaria, Germany, located North of the Danube in the now District of Donau-Ries.
The depression is interpreted as a major Meteor Impact Crater formed about 14 million years ago. The original crater rim had an estimated diameter of 24 km (15mi). The present floor of the depression is about 100 to 150m (330 to 490ft) below the eroded remains of the rim. The key evidence was the presence of Coesite, which, in none metamorphosed rocks, can only be formed by the shock pressures associated with meteorite impact.
Another impact crater, the much smaller (3.8km diameter) crater, is located about 42km(26mi) West-Southwest from the centre of Ries. The two craters are believed to have formed nearly simultaneously by the impact of a binary asteroid.
A binary asteroid is a system of two asteroids orbiting their common center of mass or the point around which they both orbit. Recent work suggests that most of them have a significant macro-porosity (a "rubble-pile" interior), and may have formed by disruption of a parent body after an oblique impact or fission.
Recent computer modelling of the Impact Event indicated that the impactors had diameters of about 1.5km (4900ft) (Larger One) and 150m (490ft) (Smaller One). They had a pre-impact separation of some tens of kilometers, and impacted the targeting area at an angle around 30 to 50 degrees from the surface in a West-SouthWest to East-NorthEast direction. The impact velocity is thought to have been about 20km/s (45000mph). The resulting explosion had he power of 1.8 million Hiroshima Bombs, an energy of roughly 2.4x10(x21) Joules.
Ivan Osipo-Vich Yarkov-Sky (24 May 1844-22 January 1902) was a Polish civil engineer working in Russia. By day, he was employed by the Alexand-Rovsk Railway company Moscow-Brest. He was obscure in his own time. In his spare time, he went deeply into the Physical Sciences and searched for a "Grand Theory" of the Physical World. In1888 he described a subtle Thermal Effect that he believed would act on planets and smaller objects orbiting the Sun. Writing in a pamphlet around the year 1900, he noted that the Diurnal Heating of a Rotating Object in Space would cause it to experience a Force that, while tiny, could lead to large long-term effects in the Orbits of Small Bodies, especially meteoroids and asteroids. This effect fell into oblivion. In 1950, longer after his death, his work on the Effects of Thermal Radiation on small objects in the Solar System (Asteroids) was re-discovered and now is so-called Yarkov-Sky Effect in Planetary Astronomy.
The effect is a consequence of the Fact that change in the temperature of an object warmed by radiation (and therefore the intensity of Thermal Radiation from the Object) lags behind changes in the incoming radiation. The surface of the object takes time to become warm when first illuminated; and takes time to cool down when illumination stops.
The Diurnal Effect on a rotating body illuminated by the Sun (e.g. an asteroid or the Earth) is that the surface is warmed by Solar Radiation during the day, and cools at night. Due to the Thermal Properties of the Surface, there is a lag between the absorption of Radiation from the sun, and the Emission of that same Radiation as Heat, so the warmest point on a rotating body occurs around 2 PM site on the surface, or slightly at Noon. This results in a difference between the directions of Absorption and Re-emission of Radiation, which yield a Net Force along the Direction of Motion of the Orbit. If the Object is a pro-grade rotator, the Force is in the direction of motion of the orbit, and causes the Semi-Major Axis of the Orbit to increase steadily; the Object spirals away from the Sun. A retro-grade rotator spirals inward. The Diurnal Effect is the component for Bodies with diameter greater than about 100 m.
The Seasonal Effect is the easiest to understand for the case of a non-rotating orbiting the Sun, for which Each Year consists of exactly One Day. As it travels around its orbit, the "Dusk" Hemisphere which has been heated over a long preceding time period is invariable in the direction of Orbital Motion. The excess of Thermal Radiation in this direction causes a Breaking Force which always causes Spiraling Inward toward the Sun.
In practice, for Rotating Bodies, the Seasonal Effect increases along with the Axial Tilt. It dominates only if the Diurnal Effect is small enough. This may occur because of very rapid Rotation (no time to cool off on the Night Side, hence an almost uniform longitudinal temperature distribution), small size (the whole body is heated throughout) or an Axial Tilt close to 90 degrees.
The Seasonal Effect is more important for smaller Asteroid Fragments (from a few metres up to about 100m), provided their surfaces are not covered by an insulating layer of loose, heterogeneous superficial material, and they do not have exceedingly slow Rotations. Additionally, on very long time-scales over which the Spin Axis of the Body may be repeatedly changed due to collisions (and hence also the direction of the Diurnal Effect changes), the Seasonal Effect will also tend to dominate.
In general, the effect is size dependent, and will affect the semi-major Axis of smaller asteroids, while leaving large asteroids practically unaffected.
Friday, February 12, 2016
THE ANDES' FACE ON THE AMERICAN CONTINENT.
The Andes are the longest and most remarkable continental mountain range that occurs on the Globe, which extends along the Whole Western Coast of America, parallel to, and at a short distance from, the Pacific Ocean.
This Chain seems quite unbroken from Cape Horn to Mount St. Elias, and even as far as Beering's Straits. In this regions, the Andes have a subterranean communication with the volcanoes of the area. There are more than 50 between Cape Horn and Mount St. Elias, that still emit flames.
The Andes have no glaciers, which is accounted for from the small quantity of snow that falls between the tropics; but on digging into the soil at Chimborazo, snow of great antiquity is found.
The internal structure of the mountains at the equator embraces almost every kind of rock discovered in the rest of the globe; and the arrangement of the strata is likewise perfectly similar. But a circumstance peculiar to these Andean Mountains is the vast height to which the rocks of subsequent formation to granite ascend in the South American soil.
In its whole course through Peru, this Range of High Land is well known to be of the most gigantic elevation. At the Isthmus of Panama the Chain is at its lowest elevation, not exceeding 6000 or 7000 ft. In Mexico it again rises into Volcanic Peaks, that almost rival Chimborazo, in the Andes.
The Rocky Mountains of North America are on a much lower scale, and do not exceed 500 or 6000 ft; but towards the NorthWestern extremity, Mount St. Elias again towers to a height second only to that of the loftiest Andes.
Another Chain on the opposite side of this American Continent runs parallel to the Atlantic. West of the United States it is called the Allegany and Apalachian Mountains. It forms the High Land of the West India Islands, and, in South America, runs along the Back Settlements of Brazil.
These 2 great lines of High Land divide America into 3 Low Lands, 2 of which are beneath the Mountain Chains and the Oceans, and are narrow, particularly that which borders the Pacific Ocean; the other, forming the interior, both of North and South America, is extensive, fertile, and watered by the noblest Rivers in the World.
The heights at which different animals are found in the South American Continent is a natural phenomena. The produce of the soil also follows the same pattern. Several communities on the Andes Mountains are situated at a considerable height. From the level of the sea to the height of about 2,000m, the plantain, maize, and chocolate nut are cultivated. This is also the region of the most delicious fruits. The sugar cane, indigo, and the coffee tree arrives at the greatest perfection in a high and strong soil. Wheat also grows in great abundance in Quito and Peru. The extensive plains of the Cordilleras are particular favorable to grain cultivation and the circumstance of the soil yielding a fantastic harvest is attributed to once they formed the bottoms of great lakes millions of years ago.
The most remarkable Mountains of the Andes are those of Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, and Pichincha.
This Chain seems quite unbroken from Cape Horn to Mount St. Elias, and even as far as Beering's Straits. In this regions, the Andes have a subterranean communication with the volcanoes of the area. There are more than 50 between Cape Horn and Mount St. Elias, that still emit flames.
The Andes have no glaciers, which is accounted for from the small quantity of snow that falls between the tropics; but on digging into the soil at Chimborazo, snow of great antiquity is found.
The internal structure of the mountains at the equator embraces almost every kind of rock discovered in the rest of the globe; and the arrangement of the strata is likewise perfectly similar. But a circumstance peculiar to these Andean Mountains is the vast height to which the rocks of subsequent formation to granite ascend in the South American soil.
In its whole course through Peru, this Range of High Land is well known to be of the most gigantic elevation. At the Isthmus of Panama the Chain is at its lowest elevation, not exceeding 6000 or 7000 ft. In Mexico it again rises into Volcanic Peaks, that almost rival Chimborazo, in the Andes.
The Rocky Mountains of North America are on a much lower scale, and do not exceed 500 or 6000 ft; but towards the NorthWestern extremity, Mount St. Elias again towers to a height second only to that of the loftiest Andes.
Another Chain on the opposite side of this American Continent runs parallel to the Atlantic. West of the United States it is called the Allegany and Apalachian Mountains. It forms the High Land of the West India Islands, and, in South America, runs along the Back Settlements of Brazil.
These 2 great lines of High Land divide America into 3 Low Lands, 2 of which are beneath the Mountain Chains and the Oceans, and are narrow, particularly that which borders the Pacific Ocean; the other, forming the interior, both of North and South America, is extensive, fertile, and watered by the noblest Rivers in the World.
The heights at which different animals are found in the South American Continent is a natural phenomena. The produce of the soil also follows the same pattern. Several communities on the Andes Mountains are situated at a considerable height. From the level of the sea to the height of about 2,000m, the plantain, maize, and chocolate nut are cultivated. This is also the region of the most delicious fruits. The sugar cane, indigo, and the coffee tree arrives at the greatest perfection in a high and strong soil. Wheat also grows in great abundance in Quito and Peru. The extensive plains of the Cordilleras are particular favorable to grain cultivation and the circumstance of the soil yielding a fantastic harvest is attributed to once they formed the bottoms of great lakes millions of years ago.
The most remarkable Mountains of the Andes are those of Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, and Pichincha.
THE ALPS
The Alps begin beyond the Var, near the Mediterranean; ascend North to Valais; to the East they form a buttress to Helvetia, stretch circularly in the Illyrian Provinces, and advance to the Adriatic near Trieste and Fiume.
Mont Blanc, West of Valais, is the prop of the chain, and also the most elevated Summit, being 14,800 ft above the sea level.
From its chain extend colossal needles, semi-circularly, like an immense Coliseum; to the West the Col du Geant, Mount Cenis, Rock Nelson, and Mount Viso.
East, are the Peaks of Argenterie and Midi, Great St.Bernard, Simplon, Mount Arvin, St,Gothard, the Pic de Tempeles, the Septimer in the Grison, the Ortelor in Tyrol, and the Terklow in Carniola.
The top of the Alps are covered with snows, and immense glaciers spread in intervals, sometimes continued from one Valley to another, on the declivity of the Summits, as in that of Gries, which separates tha Valais from PiedMont.
But on the glaciers of Grindelwald and Bois, in the Valley of Chamouni, from an insulated Summit, the eye plunges on a Sea of Ice, when arise crystalline blocks, transparent walls, prismatic needles confused intertwined, and resembling a storm arrested in fury.
The depth of the Glacier of Bois is 100 ft; bordered by a kind of parapet called Moraire, a heap of sand and fragments which fallen, and advance sometimes towards the middle of the Basin, by the annual retreat of the ice.
The Origin of these Glaciers is this: the Snow that covers the Summits of the Mountains, when detached, and drawn by the Avalanches, or Falling to the Bottom of the Valley, it accumulates. During the Summer the surface thaws; the cold returns and converts the whole into ice. Some increase, as that of Grindelwald, which has advanced beyond a bridge formerly frequented; but others decrease, yearly, as that of the Rhone.
These Glaciers feed numerous Rivers, whose course is determined by the divers branches from the mass; as the Apennines South, the Cevennes West; the Vosges North, and the Norie Alps East.
A Branch stretches North of Mont Blanc, by the Jura Mountains, connected with the Vosges, and terminated by Mont Tennere, near Mentz.
In the Alps, most rocks shoot several hundred feet above the Mountain, like Obelisks, and are called "Needles." In the Pyrenees, vast masses of rocks present abrupt slopes and steep though accessible fronts, resembling large Pyramids, and are called "Peaks." In the Vosges they are called "Balloons," because of their round sloping forms, without the rugged aspect of the other Chains.
Mont Blanc, West of Valais, is the prop of the chain, and also the most elevated Summit, being 14,800 ft above the sea level.
From its chain extend colossal needles, semi-circularly, like an immense Coliseum; to the West the Col du Geant, Mount Cenis, Rock Nelson, and Mount Viso.
East, are the Peaks of Argenterie and Midi, Great St.Bernard, Simplon, Mount Arvin, St,Gothard, the Pic de Tempeles, the Septimer in the Grison, the Ortelor in Tyrol, and the Terklow in Carniola.
The top of the Alps are covered with snows, and immense glaciers spread in intervals, sometimes continued from one Valley to another, on the declivity of the Summits, as in that of Gries, which separates tha Valais from PiedMont.
But on the glaciers of Grindelwald and Bois, in the Valley of Chamouni, from an insulated Summit, the eye plunges on a Sea of Ice, when arise crystalline blocks, transparent walls, prismatic needles confused intertwined, and resembling a storm arrested in fury.
The depth of the Glacier of Bois is 100 ft; bordered by a kind of parapet called Moraire, a heap of sand and fragments which fallen, and advance sometimes towards the middle of the Basin, by the annual retreat of the ice.
The Origin of these Glaciers is this: the Snow that covers the Summits of the Mountains, when detached, and drawn by the Avalanches, or Falling to the Bottom of the Valley, it accumulates. During the Summer the surface thaws; the cold returns and converts the whole into ice. Some increase, as that of Grindelwald, which has advanced beyond a bridge formerly frequented; but others decrease, yearly, as that of the Rhone.
These Glaciers feed numerous Rivers, whose course is determined by the divers branches from the mass; as the Apennines South, the Cevennes West; the Vosges North, and the Norie Alps East.
A Branch stretches North of Mont Blanc, by the Jura Mountains, connected with the Vosges, and terminated by Mont Tennere, near Mentz.
In the Alps, most rocks shoot several hundred feet above the Mountain, like Obelisks, and are called "Needles." In the Pyrenees, vast masses of rocks present abrupt slopes and steep though accessible fronts, resembling large Pyramids, and are called "Peaks." In the Vosges they are called "Balloons," because of their round sloping forms, without the rugged aspect of the other Chains.
Thursday, February 4, 2016
THE IGUAZU WATER FALLS OF SOUTH AMERICA.
The Iguazu Falls (Cataratas del Iguazu) are Falls of the Iguazu River on the Border of the Argentina Province of Misiones and the Brazilian State of Parana. The Falls are located where the Iguazu River tumbles over the edge of the Parana Plateau, 23 km (14 mi) UpRiver from the Iguazu confluence with the Parana River. The Falls divide the River into The Upper and Lower Iguazu creating many separate WaterFalls and Cataracts, varying between 60 to 82 m (197 to269 ft) High. The number of the smaller WaterFalls fluctuates from 150 to 300, depending on the Water Level.
Approximately half of the flow of the River falls into a long and narrow Chasm called the "Devil's Throat that is U-shaped, 82m (269ft) High, 150m(492ft) Wide, and 700m(2,297ft) Long. The Junction of the Water Flows mark the Border between Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay.
The Iguazu River originates in the Mountains Ranges and Escarpments (Cliffs) in the SouthEastern Brazil (Serra do Mar) in the territory of the Brazilian State of Parana, near the City of Curutiba.
Curitiva is the Capital and largest City of the Brazilian State of Parana, and the 8th most populous City in the country, with a total population of over 1.9 million. The Curitiva Metropolitana comprises 26 Municipalities with a total population of over 3.2 million, making it the 7th most populous in the Country. The Mountains and Cliffs run parallel to the Atlantic Ocean. The main Cliff forms the Boundary between the Sea-Level Litoral and the InLand Plateau, which has a mean altitude of 500 to 1,300m (1,600 to 4,300ft). The Mountain Ranges are discontinuous in several places and are given individual names.
The name "Iguazu" comes from the Guarani or Tupi words "Y" meaning "Water" and "Uazu" meaning "Big." The legend about Fall tells that a deity planned to marry a beautiful woman named Naipi. She fell in love with a mortal named Taroba and decided to run away with him. They fled in a canoe. Ina rage, the deity sliced the River, creating the Falls and condemning the lovers to an eternal fall.
The Iguazu Falls are natural arranged in a way that resembles a reversed letter "J". The border between Brazil and Argentina runs through the Devil's Throat. On the Right Banks is the Brazilian Territory, which has just over 20% of the Jumps of These Falls, and the Left Side Jumps are Argentine, which make up almost 80% of the Falls.
The first European to record the existence of the Falls was the Spanish adventurer Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca in 1541.
The Iguazu River, for 1,205 km (749 mi), to its confluence with the San Antonio River, flows West through the Parana State. DownRiver, from the confluence, the Iguazu River forms the Boundary between Brazil and Argentina's Misiones Province. Continuing West, the River drops off a Plateau, forming Iguazu Falls. It empties into the Parana River at the point where the Borders of Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay, join together, an area known as the Triple Frontier, where the borders of all the 3 Nations may be seen. It is a popular Tourist Attraction.
Upon seeing the Iguazu Falls, the United States First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt exclaimed "Poor Niagara!" (which, at 50m(165ft), are a 3rd shorter. Often Iguazu Falls is compared with the African Falls in Southern Africa, which separates Zambia and Zimbabwe. Iguazu is wider, but because it is split into approximately 275 discrete Falls and large islands, the African Falls has the largest Curtain of Water in the World, at more than 1,600m(5,249ft) Wide and over 100m(328ft) in Height (in low flow the African Falls are split into 5 islands; in high flow it may be uninterrupted). The only Wider Falls that are extremely Large rapid-like Falls.
Iguazu currently has the Sixth-Greatest Average Annual Flow of any WaterFall in the World, following Niagara, with an average rate of 1,746 m3/s (61,660 cu ft/s). Iguazu's maximum recorded flow was 45,700 m3/s (1'614,000 cu ft/s) in June 9, 2014. The average flow of Niagara Falls is 2,400 m3/s (85,000 cu ft/s). The average flow at the African Falls is 1,088 m3/s (38,420 cu ft/s), with a maximum recorded flow of 7,100 m3/s (250,000 cu ft/s).
Mist rises between 30 and 150 m (100 and 490ft) from Iguazu's Devil's Throat. More than 300m (984 ft) above the African Falls.
Iguazu affords better views and walkways and its shape allows for spectacular vistas. At one point a person may stand and be surrounded by 260 degrees of WaterFalls. The Devil's Throat has Water pouring into it from 3 sides. In the African Falls is different, it is essentially one WaterFall that falls into a Canyon.
Approximately half of the flow of the River falls into a long and narrow Chasm called the "Devil's Throat that is U-shaped, 82m (269ft) High, 150m(492ft) Wide, and 700m(2,297ft) Long. The Junction of the Water Flows mark the Border between Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay.
The Iguazu River originates in the Mountains Ranges and Escarpments (Cliffs) in the SouthEastern Brazil (Serra do Mar) in the territory of the Brazilian State of Parana, near the City of Curutiba.
Curitiva is the Capital and largest City of the Brazilian State of Parana, and the 8th most populous City in the country, with a total population of over 1.9 million. The Curitiva Metropolitana comprises 26 Municipalities with a total population of over 3.2 million, making it the 7th most populous in the Country. The Mountains and Cliffs run parallel to the Atlantic Ocean. The main Cliff forms the Boundary between the Sea-Level Litoral and the InLand Plateau, which has a mean altitude of 500 to 1,300m (1,600 to 4,300ft). The Mountain Ranges are discontinuous in several places and are given individual names.
The name "Iguazu" comes from the Guarani or Tupi words "Y" meaning "Water" and "Uazu" meaning "Big." The legend about Fall tells that a deity planned to marry a beautiful woman named Naipi. She fell in love with a mortal named Taroba and decided to run away with him. They fled in a canoe. Ina rage, the deity sliced the River, creating the Falls and condemning the lovers to an eternal fall.
The Iguazu Falls are natural arranged in a way that resembles a reversed letter "J". The border between Brazil and Argentina runs through the Devil's Throat. On the Right Banks is the Brazilian Territory, which has just over 20% of the Jumps of These Falls, and the Left Side Jumps are Argentine, which make up almost 80% of the Falls.
The first European to record the existence of the Falls was the Spanish adventurer Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca in 1541.
The Iguazu River, for 1,205 km (749 mi), to its confluence with the San Antonio River, flows West through the Parana State. DownRiver, from the confluence, the Iguazu River forms the Boundary between Brazil and Argentina's Misiones Province. Continuing West, the River drops off a Plateau, forming Iguazu Falls. It empties into the Parana River at the point where the Borders of Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay, join together, an area known as the Triple Frontier, where the borders of all the 3 Nations may be seen. It is a popular Tourist Attraction.
Upon seeing the Iguazu Falls, the United States First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt exclaimed "Poor Niagara!" (which, at 50m(165ft), are a 3rd shorter. Often Iguazu Falls is compared with the African Falls in Southern Africa, which separates Zambia and Zimbabwe. Iguazu is wider, but because it is split into approximately 275 discrete Falls and large islands, the African Falls has the largest Curtain of Water in the World, at more than 1,600m(5,249ft) Wide and over 100m(328ft) in Height (in low flow the African Falls are split into 5 islands; in high flow it may be uninterrupted). The only Wider Falls that are extremely Large rapid-like Falls.
Iguazu currently has the Sixth-Greatest Average Annual Flow of any WaterFall in the World, following Niagara, with an average rate of 1,746 m3/s (61,660 cu ft/s). Iguazu's maximum recorded flow was 45,700 m3/s (1'614,000 cu ft/s) in June 9, 2014. The average flow of Niagara Falls is 2,400 m3/s (85,000 cu ft/s). The average flow at the African Falls is 1,088 m3/s (38,420 cu ft/s), with a maximum recorded flow of 7,100 m3/s (250,000 cu ft/s).
Mist rises between 30 and 150 m (100 and 490ft) from Iguazu's Devil's Throat. More than 300m (984 ft) above the African Falls.
Iguazu affords better views and walkways and its shape allows for spectacular vistas. At one point a person may stand and be surrounded by 260 degrees of WaterFalls. The Devil's Throat has Water pouring into it from 3 sides. In the African Falls is different, it is essentially one WaterFall that falls into a Canyon.
Wednesday, February 3, 2016
THE NORTH AMERICAN FALLS.
Niagara Falls (Tgahnawehta in Northern Iroquoi Language) is the collective name for the 3 WaterFalls that straddle the International Border between Canada and the United States; more specifically, between the Province of Ontario and the State of New York. They form the Southern End of the Niagara Gorge.
The Niagara Gorge is an 11 km (6.8 mi) Gorge carved by the Niagara River along the US-Canadian border in New York and Ontario. While not exceptionally high, they are very wide. More than 6 million cubic feet (168,000 m3) of water falls over the crest line every minute in high flow, and almost 4 million cubic feet (110,000m3) on average.
It begins at the base of Niagara Falls and ends at the Niagara Escarpment (Cliff) near Queenston, Ontario, where the Falls originated about 12,500 years ago when Glaciers receded at the end of the Wisconsin Glaciation (the last ice age), and water from the newly formed Great Lakes carved a path trough the Niagara Cliff en route to the Atlantic Ocean.
The Niagara Escarpment is a long Cliff, or Cuesta, in the USA and Canada that runs predominantly East/West from New York State, through Ontario, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois. The Escarpment is most famous as the Cliff over which the Niagara River plunges at Niagara Falls, for which it is named. The Niagara Cliff is the most prominent of several cliffs formed in the bedrock of the Great Lakes basin. From its Easternmost Point near WaterTown, New York, the cliff shapes in part the individual basins and landforms of Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Michigan.
In Rochester, New York, there are 3 Water Falls over the cliff where the Genesee River flows through the City. The Cliff then runs WestWard to the Niagara River forming a Deep Gorge North of Niagara Falls, which itself cascades over the Cliff.
In Southern Ontario it spans the Niagara Peninsula, closely following the Lake Ontario shore through the Cities of St. Catherine, Hamilton, and Dundas, where it takes a sharp turn North in the Town of Milton toward Georgian Bay.
It then follows the Georgian Bay shore NorthWestWards to form the spine of the Bruce Peninsula and Manitoulin Island, as well as several islands located in Northern Lake Huron where it turns WestWards into the upper peninsula of Northern Michigan, South of Sault Ste. Marie.
It then extends SouthWards into Wisconsin following the Door Peninsula through the BayShore BluffLands and then more inland from the Western Coast of Lake michigan and Milwaukee, ending NorthWest of Chicago near the Wisconsin-Illinois Border.
The 3 Water Falls that straddle the International Border are, from largest to smallest: the HorseShoe Falls, the American Falls and the Bridal Veil Falls.
The Niagara Gorge is an 11 km (6.8 mi) Gorge carved by the Niagara River along the US-Canadian border in New York and Ontario. While not exceptionally high, they are very wide. More than 6 million cubic feet (168,000 m3) of water falls over the crest line every minute in high flow, and almost 4 million cubic feet (110,000m3) on average.
It begins at the base of Niagara Falls and ends at the Niagara Escarpment (Cliff) near Queenston, Ontario, where the Falls originated about 12,500 years ago when Glaciers receded at the end of the Wisconsin Glaciation (the last ice age), and water from the newly formed Great Lakes carved a path trough the Niagara Cliff en route to the Atlantic Ocean.
The Niagara Escarpment is a long Cliff, or Cuesta, in the USA and Canada that runs predominantly East/West from New York State, through Ontario, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois. The Escarpment is most famous as the Cliff over which the Niagara River plunges at Niagara Falls, for which it is named. The Niagara Cliff is the most prominent of several cliffs formed in the bedrock of the Great Lakes basin. From its Easternmost Point near WaterTown, New York, the cliff shapes in part the individual basins and landforms of Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Michigan.
In Rochester, New York, there are 3 Water Falls over the cliff where the Genesee River flows through the City. The Cliff then runs WestWard to the Niagara River forming a Deep Gorge North of Niagara Falls, which itself cascades over the Cliff.
In Southern Ontario it spans the Niagara Peninsula, closely following the Lake Ontario shore through the Cities of St. Catherine, Hamilton, and Dundas, where it takes a sharp turn North in the Town of Milton toward Georgian Bay.
It then follows the Georgian Bay shore NorthWestWards to form the spine of the Bruce Peninsula and Manitoulin Island, as well as several islands located in Northern Lake Huron where it turns WestWards into the upper peninsula of Northern Michigan, South of Sault Ste. Marie.
It then extends SouthWards into Wisconsin following the Door Peninsula through the BayShore BluffLands and then more inland from the Western Coast of Lake michigan and Milwaukee, ending NorthWest of Chicago near the Wisconsin-Illinois Border.
The 3 Water Falls that straddle the International Border are, from largest to smallest: the HorseShoe Falls, the American Falls and the Bridal Veil Falls.
THE AFRICAN WATERFALLS.
Lake Mak-gadik-gadi is an ancient Lake in the Kala-Hari Dessert in Bots-Wana, South Africa. It once covered as much as 80,000 km2 and was 30 m deep.
It was born approximately 3 million years ago, when strong Easterly Winds formed the elongated Dunes running from East to West across the Middle of the Kala-Hari Dessert. During wetter times, these Dunes channeled the flow of the 3 great Rivers of the area, the Okavango, Zambezi, and Kuando, once all emptied into the Lake.
Then 2 millions years ago, the Fault known as the Kala-Hari-Zimbabwe Axis formed, running from the Zimbabwe Capital Harare through its 2nd largest City Bulawayo and ends in the Eastern Side of the Kala-Hari, creating an enormous Basin and forced these Rivers to flow into and fill up the Basin. Lake Mak-gadik-gadi was thus born.
As the millennia passed, the Lake was filled beyond capacity and began to overflow. Then, about 20,000 years ago, as a result, it began to drain NorthWards and then EastWards. This caused the Middle and Lower Zambezi Rivers to connect, resulting in the formation of Victoria Falls (Mosi-oa-Tunya, the real name in the language of the locals) at the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is believed that the first European that arrived to the scene was a Scottish missionary and explorer named David LivingStone on 1855. One of the 2 Land Masses in the middle of the River, immediately upstream from the Falls is now known LivingStone Island. The explorer also named the Falls in honor to Queen Victoria, Victoria Falls, but the use of the ancient name, Mosi-oa-Tunya -"The Smoke that Thunders"- continues in common usage to the inhabitants of the area.
In 2013, the government of Zimbabwe declared its intention to officially rename the Falls "Mosi-oa-Tunya," citing continuity with other re-names such Harare (from Salisbury), and Zimbabwe (from Rhodesia).
While it is neither the highest nor the widest in the World, i the Fall is classified as the Largest, based on its Width of 1,708 m (5,604 ft) and Hight of 108 m (354 ft), resulting in the World's Largest Sheet of Falling Water. Mosi-oa-Tunya (Victoria Falls) is roughly twice the Height of North America's Niagara Falls and well over twice the Width of its HorseShoe Falls. In height and width the African Falls is rivaled only by Argentina and Brazil's Iguazu Falls.
It was born approximately 3 million years ago, when strong Easterly Winds formed the elongated Dunes running from East to West across the Middle of the Kala-Hari Dessert. During wetter times, these Dunes channeled the flow of the 3 great Rivers of the area, the Okavango, Zambezi, and Kuando, once all emptied into the Lake.
Then 2 millions years ago, the Fault known as the Kala-Hari-Zimbabwe Axis formed, running from the Zimbabwe Capital Harare through its 2nd largest City Bulawayo and ends in the Eastern Side of the Kala-Hari, creating an enormous Basin and forced these Rivers to flow into and fill up the Basin. Lake Mak-gadik-gadi was thus born.
As the millennia passed, the Lake was filled beyond capacity and began to overflow. Then, about 20,000 years ago, as a result, it began to drain NorthWards and then EastWards. This caused the Middle and Lower Zambezi Rivers to connect, resulting in the formation of Victoria Falls (Mosi-oa-Tunya, the real name in the language of the locals) at the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is believed that the first European that arrived to the scene was a Scottish missionary and explorer named David LivingStone on 1855. One of the 2 Land Masses in the middle of the River, immediately upstream from the Falls is now known LivingStone Island. The explorer also named the Falls in honor to Queen Victoria, Victoria Falls, but the use of the ancient name, Mosi-oa-Tunya -"The Smoke that Thunders"- continues in common usage to the inhabitants of the area.
In 2013, the government of Zimbabwe declared its intention to officially rename the Falls "Mosi-oa-Tunya," citing continuity with other re-names such Harare (from Salisbury), and Zimbabwe (from Rhodesia).
While it is neither the highest nor the widest in the World, i the Fall is classified as the Largest, based on its Width of 1,708 m (5,604 ft) and Hight of 108 m (354 ft), resulting in the World's Largest Sheet of Falling Water. Mosi-oa-Tunya (Victoria Falls) is roughly twice the Height of North America's Niagara Falls and well over twice the Width of its HorseShoe Falls. In height and width the African Falls is rivaled only by Argentina and Brazil's Iguazu Falls.
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